A Level 5月經(jīng)濟(jì)大考馬上快開(kāi)始了,根據(jù)新考綱規(guī)定,考生將必須從微觀,宏觀兩個(gè)部分中分別選擇一篇20分的essay完成,這就給一些考生帶來(lái)了蠻大的壓力,因?yàn)榇蠹疫€是普遍認(rèn)為宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)比微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)要更難一些。不過(guò)沒(méi)關(guān)系!今天小編給大家整理了關(guān)于A2宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)的重要知識(shí)點(diǎn)匯總,希望能夠幫到大家!
今天這篇文章所分享的內(nèi)容基本上是Chapter 9的重點(diǎn)知識(shí)點(diǎn)和考點(diǎn)。第九章的內(nèi)容之多,難點(diǎn)之多,我覺(jué)得是很有必要跟同學(xué)們好好總結(jié)總結(jié)的。其余的包括Chapter 10,11的知識(shí)點(diǎn),相對(duì)于第九章來(lái)說(shuō),內(nèi)容更少,更好理解,課本就能夠涵蓋所有的知識(shí),在這里就不過(guò)多贅述了。
今天這篇文章將講述一下4大知識(shí)板塊的內(nèi)容:
1. Money貨幣
2. Money supply 貨幣供給
3. Unemployment 失業(yè)率
4. Circular flow of income 收入的循環(huán)流動(dòng)
大家可以根據(jù)自己的復(fù)習(xí)情況劃到任意版塊閱讀。那么話不多說(shuō),一起來(lái)看看吧!
Money
貨幣
這一部分知識(shí)點(diǎn)主要以選擇題的形式出現(xiàn),大題出現(xiàn)的頻率不高。我認(rèn)為主要是需要記住money的定義,性質(zhì)和功能。所以,我將這3點(diǎn)列出,并對(duì)特定學(xué)術(shù)詞匯作出了詳細(xì)的解釋。
Money:
any items which can be used as a payment
Eg. Cash, deposit credit cards, debit card, gold, silver, bitcoin.
Functions of money:
1. Medium of exchange>>facilitate trade, promote specialization
2. Store of value>>saving, plan for the future
3. Unit of account/measure of value>>compare prices between different products
4. Standard of deferred payment>>credit(lending, borrowing)
基礎(chǔ)名詞(只需理解,非專門列出來(lái)的考點(diǎn))
1. Deposit:銀行賬戶里的存款。比如說(shuō)你銀行卡還有500元的余額,這個(gè)500就是你的deposit
2. Debit card &credit card的區(qū)別:debit card又叫借記卡,是只能存錢的銀行卡,刷卡的時(shí)候最多只能夠把你的deposit刷完。Credit card又叫信用卡,不光能存錢,還可以透支(overdraft)
3. Overdraft:透支的意思是,當(dāng)你想要買的東西價(jià)格>銀行存款時(shí),你可以透支使用銀行的錢,在下一次到期之前還款就行。至于能夠透支花費(fèi)多少,這得看你個(gè)人的信用有多少。
4. Notes紙幣,coins硬幣
5. Checks(cheques):支票,可以拿到銀行去兌換對(duì)應(yīng)金額的金錢。
Characteristics of money:
Portable
Generally acceptable
Recognizable
Identical
Divisible
Difficult to counterfeit
Scarcity
Money supply
貨幣供給
這一部分內(nèi)容需要區(qū)分narrow money和broad money的不同點(diǎn)和各自的例子。中央銀行和商業(yè)銀行各自的職責(zé),銀行運(yùn)作的規(guī)律也需要熟記。
Money supply:
total amount of money in an economy
Narrow money:
has strong liquidity, such as notes in circulation, cash held in banks (balance in checking/current account)and reserves held at commercial banks(till money)
Broad money:
narrow money+money used as a store of value
Eg. Shares, bills, bonds
Role of central banks:
1. Implement monetary policies
2. Banker of governments, commercial banks
3. Held foreign currency reserves
4. Monitor the banking system
5. Print money
Role of commercial banks:
1. Provide deposit account
2. Lending money:overdraft, loans
3. Holding or providing cash, securities, loans, deposits equity
銀行是怎么賺錢的:
銀行主要是通過(guò)利息差賺錢。比如說(shuō)人們存錢的利息是2%,那么銀行借出去的利息(用于investment)的就會(huì)到10%,銀行賺取的就是中間8%的利息差。
Eg. Saving---banks---investments
Trade off between profitability and liquidity:如果銀行想要賺取more profit,他就會(huì)多借錢出去;賺取更多的利息;但是同時(shí)bank里的reserves也會(huì)降低,如果存款人要withdraw存款,銀行很有可能拿不出來(lái);這就是我們所說(shuō)的流動(dòng)性降低。
Liquidity:how easy an asset can be converted in cash
Reserve ratio:準(zhǔn)備金率(liquid ratio/cash ratio)
The minimum proportion of deposits that central banks requires banks and other financial institutions to hold, which is designed to satisfy withdrawal demand.
Reserve ratio & credit multipler:
如果reserve ratio=5%,cash一共是100 dollar。代表銀行能夠借出去95 dollar,這些錢如果都存進(jìn)銀行,銀行又會(huì)借出去95x0.95,這樣循環(huán)往復(fù),銀行所借出去的貸款的總額將會(huì)是1/reserve ratio=credit multiplier,也就是銀行往經(jīng)濟(jì)體里注入的injection。
Government deficit financing:
如果government缺錢了,產(chǎn)生了budget deficit,那么就會(huì)發(fā)行債券來(lái)增加收入。
一共通過(guò)三種方式:
1. Central banks print money,將政府的bonds買下來(lái),政府擁有了這筆錢了以后可以注入經(jīng)濟(jì)體。如果是central bank印錢的話,錢沒(méi)有辦法進(jìn)入市場(chǎng),因?yàn)閏entral bank的錢本來(lái)在市場(chǎng)上就不流通,所以它通過(guò)政府,將這筆錢inject進(jìn)市場(chǎng)。以上大概內(nèi)容就是我們講的量化寬松(QE)
2. Borrow from the commercial banks。政府將short-term bills賣給商業(yè)銀行,銀行將reserves給政府,政府拿到了錢;short-term bills的liquidity較強(qiáng),因?yàn)橐荒曛畠?nèi)政府就會(huì)返還錢+利息,所以二手市場(chǎng)非常愿意購(gòu)買這些bills。所以,當(dāng)銀行需要借款的時(shí)候,他就會(huì)將bills賣給這些人,換取cash借給別人。這樣子的話,銀行依舊借錢,政府多了一筆錢,MS增加。
3. 第三種就是borrow from the private instututions/individuals。政府向老百姓借錢,老百姓為了買政府的bonds,會(huì)從銀行取錢買,這個(gè)withdraw減少了銀行可以借給investor的cash。所以,即使政府得到了錢,老百姓也失去了錢,MS不變。
Unemployment
失業(yè)率
失業(yè)率屬于從G1開(kāi)始就接觸到的考點(diǎn)了。在A2的大綱中,大家需要知道失業(yè)率的衡量方法,造成原因和解決失業(yè)率的各種政策。
Unemployment定義:
people who are willing but unable to find a job
Working age population:16-65 yrs old; dependent population:小于16歲,大于65歲。
Working age population又可以分為兩種,一種是economically active population,又稱為labour force;一種是inactive population。
Economically active population可以分為employment和unemployment;inactive population就是那些不找工作/不愿意找工作/沒(méi)有能力找工作的人,但是在working age里的人,比如說(shuō)disabled;students;housewives;early retirements。
Dependency ratio=dependent population/working age population
Participation rate=labour force/working age population
Measurement of the unemployment:
claimant count:by counting the numbers of people who claiming for the unemployment benefits.
Labour force survey
Causes of unemployment:
Demand-side unemployment;
Supply side unemployment/natural rate of unemployment
Demand side unemployment:
Recession>>lower AD>>since labour is a derived demand>>loawer demand for labour
Reasons for natural rate of unemployment:
1. Frictional unemployment:arises when workers are between jobs;這種失業(yè)非常正常,分為search unemployment和casual unemployment:第一個(gè)是已經(jīng)有了一份offer,但卻不愿意去上班,想要更好的offer;第二種是自己的職業(yè)原因,有長(zhǎng)短的休息時(shí)間,比如說(shuō)actors,construction workers等等。
2. Seasonal unemployment:demand for workers fluctuates according to time of the year. eg.旅游業(yè),每年有淡旺季之分
3. Real-wage unemployment:工資設(shè)置的太高,導(dǎo)致了surplus of labour,因?yàn)樽鳛楣緛?lái)講,過(guò)高的工資導(dǎo)致對(duì)labour的需求量變小了,這也會(huì)導(dǎo)致失業(yè)。
4. Structural unemployment:refers to a type of unemployment that arises from the changes in the structure of the economy, it occurs when there is a mismatch of the skills and qualifications of workers and the available job opportunities.
5. Regional unemployment:when the declining industries are concentrated in a particular area of the country.
6. Factors affecting the natural rate of unemployment:
Minimum wage>>real-wage unemployment
Education and training>>structural unemployment
Wage differences between regions>>great icrentives for people to work in different area>>mobility increase>>natural rate of unemployment decrease
Cost of living in different regions>>geographical mobility decreases>>natural rate of unemployment increases
Policies to reduce natural rate of unemployment:
1. Education and training to reduce structural unemployment.
Eg. If the economy is shifting to the technology-based industries, those workers who have been trained will be in high demand. On the other hand, workers who lack these skills may struggle to find employment in the new economy, leading to structural unemployment.
2. Providing information to job vacancies>>reduce frictional unemployment
3. Provide infrastructure>>transport links>>reduce geographical unemployment
The difference between actual growth and potential growth:
Actual growth:an increase in real GDP
Potential growth:an increase in the quantity and quality of the FOP
Actural growth:
short run concept, either lower cost of production or increase the AD lead to the increase in real output. PPC圖像上顯示的是從內(nèi)部一個(gè)點(diǎn)往外轉(zhuǎn)移到線上。
Potential growth:
long run concept,PPC圖像向歪shift,豎直的long run aggregate supply向外shift,或者在keynesian主張的aggregate supply中,圖像往外shift。
Circular flow of income
收入的循環(huán)流動(dòng)
這個(gè)部分是本章的核心知識(shí)點(diǎn),考生需要掌握錢是如何在經(jīng)濟(jì)體里流動(dòng)的,并學(xué)會(huì)用圖表來(lái)說(shuō)明。
For closed economy with no government:
we only have household and firm:
Household>>consumption of G&S>>firms
Firms>>income>>household
Investment>>injections inject to the firms
Household>>saving>>banks
With 3-sector economy, we add into the role of government:
Therefore, government spending(G) + taxation(S)is included.
AE=consumption+investment+government spending into the economy (AE=C+I+G)
With 4-sector economy, including the international trade:
The imports(M)and exports(X)are included
exports也相當(dāng)于增加MS,所以也算進(jìn)AE里面“+”
imports相當(dāng)于錢流失到別的國(guó)家了,所以要減去“-”
overall, AE=C+I+G+(N-X)
injection-withdraw model:
Why the injection line is horizontal?
因?yàn)閕njection的組成部分(政府開(kāi)支government spending+投資investment+凈出口net export)都與real GDP(總產(chǎn)量無(wú)關(guān)),因?yàn)檫@些都是government,bank,和international
Trade決定的。但是withdraw(是跟taxation,saving,imports有關(guān)的,這些都是根據(jù)output的增減發(fā)生變化的,因?yàn)閕ncome會(huì)發(fā)生變化,所以如果real GDP上升,leakage上升。
National income
National income is the value of total output produced by an economy over a period of time. People can earn an income from producing an output. The income is then spent on the output. This means that total output = total income =total expenditure.
好了!以上就是小編總結(jié)的部分宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)的重點(diǎn)知識(shí)點(diǎn)。宏觀經(jīng)濟(jì)的內(nèi)容實(shí)在太多,涵蓋的內(nèi)容面太廣,學(xué)姐建議大家復(fù)習(xí)的時(shí)候根據(jù)新的syllabus來(lái)復(fù)習(xí),一個(gè)一個(gè)topic查看自己有沒(méi)有遺漏的知識(shí)。
最后,AL國(guó)際考是A Level考生高中生涯的最后一門考試了。希望大家的A Level經(jīng)濟(jì)大考順利!都能夠過(guò)con美美進(jìn)入大學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)~
以上就是關(guān)于《A Level科目:A2經(jīng)濟(jì)宏觀易考知識(shí)點(diǎn)超全整理匯總》介紹。外語(yǔ)加油站,專業(yè)外語(yǔ)培訓(xùn)服務(wù)平臺(tái)。快速了解雅思、托福、SAT等外語(yǔ)考試報(bào)名信息、報(bào)考要求、真題詳解等,歡迎在線預(yù)約咨詢。
關(guān)于我們
購(gòu)課指南
消費(fèi)者保障
商務(wù)合作
Copyright 2020-2021 360intedu.com . All Rights Reserved.
版權(quán)所有: 北京愛(ài)思學(xué)科技有限公司 京ICP備20031312號(hào)-1